Если составлять список наиболее известных изобретений за последние несколько веков, то среди авторов этих изобретений будет очень мало женщин. Причем дело не в том, что женщины не умеют изобретать или у них нет творческой жилки, просто они сталкиваются с многочисленными препятствиями при получении «кредита» для своих идей...
Возьмем, к примеру, случай Сибиллы Мастерс (Sybilla Masters), женщины, которая жила в американских колониях. Понаблюдав за работой индейских женщин, она придумала новый способ превращать кукурузу в кукурузную муку. Сибилла поехала в Англию для того, чтобы получить патент на свою идею, однако, по действующим тогда законам женщинам запрещалось иметь свою собственность, в том числе и интеллектуальную. Такая собственность, как правило, принадлежала либо отцу женщины, либо ее мужу. В 1715 году патент на ее изобретение все же был выдан, но в документе было указано имя ее мужа.
Мэри Кис (Mary Kies) была первой американской женщиной, которая зарегистрировала патент на свое имя. В 1809 году она разработала способ плетения соломенных шляпок, что было экономическим благом для Новой Англии. Получив документ на свое имя, Мэри тем самым открыла путь другим женщинам-изобретателям к возможности патентовать свои идеи. И женщины не замедлили этим воспользоваться.
1. Циркулярная пила
В конце 18 века появилась протестантская религиозная секта, известная как Шейкеры. Главными ценностями этой секты были коммунальная жизнь, равенство между полами и тяжелая работа. Табита Бэббит (Tabitha Babbitt) жила в шейкерском сообществе в Массачусетсе и работала ткачихой, но в 1810 году она придумала способ облегчить нагрузку в работе на своих братьев. Она заметила, что мужчины пилят бревна специальной пилой с двумя ручками, которые нужно тянуть то вперед, то назад. Хотя нагрузка на обоих мужчин была одинаковой, бревна распиливались только тогда, когда пила двигалась вперед, а при обратном движении с бревном ничего не происходило. Бэббит подумала, что это пустая трата энергии, и создала прототип циркулярной пилы, которая позднее стала использоваться в лесопильной промышленности. Она придумала пилу с круговым лезвием, поэтому каждое движение имело смысл. Однако, из-за заповедей общины, Бэббит не стала получать патент на свое изобретение.
2. Шоколадное печенье
Нет никаких сомнений в том, что многие кулинарные шедевры родились в результате случайности, но стоит среди них выделить один из самых живучих и вкусных — шоколадное печенье.
Рут Уэйкфилд (Ruth Wakefield) работала врачом-диетологом и пищевым лектором перед тем, как она вместе со своим мужем приобрели старый дом-пост у заставы в пригороде Бостона. Традиционно, такие дома были местом, где усталые путники выплачивали дорожные сборы, перекусывали и кормили лошадей. Рут и ее муж превратили это место в гостиницу с рестораном. Однажды в 1930 году Рут пекла для жителей гостиницы печенье, в которое по рецепту необходимо было добавить растопленный шоколад, однако, женщина очень торопилась, поэтому она взяла обычный шоколад Nestle, поломала его на мелкие кусочки и добавила в тесто, полагая, что во время выпечки шоколад расплавится сам. Вместо этого, шоколад приобрел особую форму, и таким образом произошло рождение шоколадного печенья.
Компания Nestle заметила, что продажи ее шоколада выросли в штате Массачусетс. Представители компании встретились с Уэйкфилд побеседовать по поводу ее печенья, которое очень быстро завоевало хорошую репутацию среди туристов. По предложению Рут, они добавили на свой шоколад линии для более простого разлома, а затем с 1939 года стали продавать заводского производства печенье, при этом рецепт Рут был напечатан на обратной стороне упаковки. В обмен на это женщина получила пожизненное обеспечение бесплатным шоколадом.
3. Корректор
Бетт Несмит Грэм (Bette Nesmith Graham) была не очень хорошей машинисткой. Тем не менее, высокая степень отсева учащихся колледжа, которая коснулась и ее, привела девушку в секретариат банка Техаса, где она стала исполнительным секретарем председателя совета банка. Это было начало 1950-х годов, электрическая печатная машинка только что была введена в эксплуатацию. Но секретарям часто приходилось перепечатывать целые страницы текста из-за одной маленькой ошибки, поскольку используемые на тот момент углеродные ленты не могли исправлять ошибки.
Однажды Грэм наблюдала, как рабочие наносили праздничный рисунок на окна банка. Она заметила, что когда они ошибались, они просто наносили еще один слой краски сверху, чтобы «закрыть» ошибку. Увидев это, она решила, что сможет применить эту идею в своей работе. Используя свой блендер, она смешала краску на водной основе с красителем, который использовался в ее печатной машинке. Получившуюся смесь она взяла с собой на работу, и ей удалось незаметно при помощи тонкой акварельной кисти исправить все ошибки в напечатанном ею документе. Вскоре и другие секретари стали требовать этот продукт, который Грэм выпускала на собственной кухне. Грэм была уволена с работы за трату большого количества времени на распространение своего товара, который она назвала «Нет ошибкам». Однако, будучи безработной, она смогла усовершенствовать свой продукт, переименовать его в «Жидкую бумагу» и получить на нее патент в 1958 году. Хотя пишущие машинки были заменены на компьютеры, многие люди до сих пор пользуются белой жидкостью — корректором.
4. Компилятор и язык программирования COBOL
Говоря о компьютерных технологиях, мы склонны называть такие имена, как Чарльз Бэббэдж (Charles Babbage), Алан Тьюринг (Alan Turing) и Билл Гейтс. Однако, адмирал Грейс Мюррей Хоппер (Grace Murray Hopper) заслуживает уважения за ее роль в компьютерной индустрии. Адмирал Хоппер начала служить в 1943 году, при этом она находилась в Гарвардском университете, где трудилась над созданием компьютера IBM Harvard Mark I, который был первым крупномасштабным компьютером в США. Она была третьим лицом в проекте, при этом Грейс написала руководство по операциям, которым пользовались ее последователи. В 1950 году адмирал изобрела компилятор, который трансформировал английские команды в машинный код. Это означало, что теперь программисты могли создавать код легче и с меньшим количеством ошибок.
Второй компилятор Хоппер, Flow-Matic, использовался для программ UNIVAC I и II, которые поддерживали первые появившиеся в продаже компьютеры. Адмирал Хоппер также курировала разработку общего бизнес-ориентированного языка COBOL, который был одним из первых языков программирования компьютера. Адмирал Хоппер получила множество наград за проделанную ею работу, кроме того, в ее честь был назван американский военный корабль.
5. Цветные сигнальные ракеты
Когда Марта Костон (Martha Coston) овдовела в 1847 году, ей был всего 21 год. На руках у нее было четверо детей, и она не имела ни малейшего представления о том, как жить дальше и чем их кормить. В один из вечеров она листала записную книжку своего умершего мужа и обнаружила там план создания факельной системы, которую могли бы использовать корабли для того, чтобы общаться между собой в ночное время. Костон просила соответствующие органы о том, чтобы проверить систему в работе, однако это не удалось, но Костон была неудержима.
Следующие 10 лет она провела за тем, что занималась усовершенствованием системы и дизайна придуманного ее мужем устройства. Она консультировалась с учеными и офицерами, но все же не могла понять, как сделать так, чтобы вспышки были яркими и долговечными, при этом были простыми в использовании. Однажды ночью она вывела своих детей на улицу для того, чтобы те посмотрели на фейерверк, тогда-то ей в голову и пришла идея о том, чтобы применить некоторые пиротехнические технологии в ее факельной системе.
Факельная система наконец заработала, и ВМС США купили права на нее. Цветные сигнальные ракеты Костон широко использовались во время гражданской войны. Но, к сожалению, факельная система оказалась не лучшим способом для женщины прокормить своих детей. Согласно военной документации, Костон произвела для военно-морского флота во время гражданской войны около 1200000 ракет, которые она предоставила им по себестоимости. Ей должны были заплатить 120000 долларов, из которых она получила лишь 15000, и, как она писала в своей автобиографии, флот отказался выплатить ей всю сумму в связи с тем, что она была женщиной.
6. Бумажный пакет
Маргарет Найт (Margaret Knight) не изобрела бумажный пакет, но те первые бумажные мешки не были настолько полезными для переноски вещей. Они были больше похожи на конверты, поэтому не было никакой возможности их использования под продукты, то есть то, какими мы их знаем сейчас, они стали не сразу. За это нам стоит поблагодарить Найт. Она поняла, что у таких пакетов должна быть большая площадь дна, тогда вес распределялся бы равномерно, и такой пакет вмещал бы больше вещей.
В 1870 году она создала деревянные аппараты, которые вырезали и склеивали квадратные основания бумажных пакетов. Пока Найт работала над созданием железного прототипа аппарата, чтобы затем запатентовать свое изобретение, она обнаружила, что ее идею украл некий человек по имени Чарльз Аннан (Charles Annan), который видел ее деревянное изобретение несколькими месяцами ранее. Она подала иск против Аннана, который утверждал, что невозможно, чтобы женщина смогла изобрести такую сложную в работе машину. Найт подняла все свои наброски, чертежи и заметки, в итоге ей удалось доказать обратное и получить патент на устройство в 1871 году.
Однако, это был первый патент, который достался ей с таким трудом, но далеко не первым патентом в ее жизни. В возрасте 12 лет, она разработала автоматически останавливающее промышленные машины устройство, если что-то шло не так, что позволяло предотвратить большое количество травм. Найт получила более 20 патентов.
7. Посудомоечная машина
Можно предположить, что посудомоечную машину изобрел человек, который годы потратил стоя над раковиной и вымывая горы посуды, оплакивая впустую растраченное время. На самом деле, Джозефина Кокрейн (Josephine Cochrane), которая получила патент на первую рабочую посудомоечную машину, не тратила так много времени на мытье тарелок. Реальным стимулом для ее изобретения стал тот факт, что однажды после прекрасного обеда ее работники во время уборки на кухне разбили удивительный китайский фарфоровый сервиз, который был ей очень дорог.
Кокрейн была светской особой, которая любила развлекаться, однако, после смерти мужа в 1883 году, она осталась с огромным количеством долгов. Вместо того чтобы продать свои многочисленные реликвии, она сосредоточилась на создании машины, которая могла бы их хорошо мыть, не вредя им. Ее машина, в основе работы которой была направленная на посуду под сильным давлением струя воды, позволила ей получить патент на устройство в 1886 году. Женщина утверждала, что изобрести машину было намного легче, чем продвинуть ее в массы. Сначала ее изобретение потерпело неудачу среди индивидуальных потребителей, поскольку у многих семей не было систем нагревания воды, которые необходимы для работы машины, а те, у которых они были, не хотели платить за то, что женщины делали бесплатно.
Не испугавшись и этого провала, она стала искать встреч с директорами крупных гостиниц и ресторанов, рассказывая им о том, что посудомоечная машина может делать ту работу, за которую они платили десяткам работников. Со временем, однако, все больше семей стали приобретать себе ее устройство в частное пользование.
8. Стеклоочистители
На заре 20 века Мэри Андерсон (Mary Anderson) впервые посетила Нью-Йорк. Она увидела тот Нью-Йорк, который сильно отличается от того, что видят туристы сегодня. Тогда еще не существовало бесконечных пробок и немыслимое количество машин, которые бесконечно и бессмысленно сигналят друг другу в тщетной надежде быстрее проехать. В те времена автомобили еще не захватили американское воображение и были довольно редки. Однако, женщина из Алабамы, поехав тогда в Нью-Йорк, изобрела то, что стало стандартом для каждого автомобиля. Во время своей поездки Андерсон ехала на трамвае через заснеженный город.
Она обратила внимание на то, что водителю приходиться останавливаться каждые несколько минут для того, чтобы очистить лобовое стекло от снега. В то время все водители так делали, поэтому когда шел дождь или снег, это была настоящая напасть, с которой приходилось иметь дело. Вернувшись домой, Андерсон разработала специальный держатель на шпинделе, который был при помощи ручки прикреплен к внешней стороне лобового стекла. Когда водителю было необходимо очистить стекло, он просто тянул за ручку и прибор удалял загрязнения с лобового стекла. Андерсон получила патент на свое устройство в 1903 году, но только 10 лет спустя тысячи американцев стали ездить на автомобилях с ее изобретением.
9. Нистатин
Романтические отношения на расстоянии часто ставят под сомнения, однако, Рэйчел Фуллер Браун (Rachel Fuller Brown) и Элизабет Ли Хазен (Elizabeth Lee Hazen) сумели доказать, что профессиональные отношения на расстоянии могут привести к продуктивным результатам. Обе женщины работали в нью-йоркском департаменте здравоохранения штата в 1940 году, но Хазен находилась в Нью-Йорке, а Браун была в Олбани. Несмотря на мили, их разделяющие, они активно сотрудничали в процессе создания первого успешного препарата, борющегося с грибком.
В Нью-Йорке Хазен испытывала образцы почвы для того, чтобы проверить, взаимодействует ли какой-либо из организмов с грибами. Если бы ей удалось обнаружить какую-то активность в почве, она должна была отправить данный образец своей коллеге, задачей которой было извлечь из почвы организм, ставший причиной реакции. Как только бы Браун нашла активный ингредиент, она должна была отослать образец обратно Хазен, чтобы та проверила его снова на наличие грибков. Если организм способен убивать грибков, его следовало бы оценить на токсичность. Большинство образцов оказались слишком токсичными для человека, но, наконец, Браун и Хазен наткнулись на эффективный организм, убивающий грибов и безопасный для человека. Это случилось в 1950 году.
Они назвали свой препарат нистатином. В настоящее время лекарственный препарат продается под разными торговыми названиями, и лечит он грибковые инфекции, которые воздействуют на кожу, половые органы и кишечник.
10. Кевлар
Это должна была быть просто временной работой. Стефании Кволек (Stephanie Kwolek) начала работать в компании DuPont в 1946 году для того, чтобы накопить достаточное количество денег на учебу в медицинском колледже. В 1964 году она по-прежнему была на том же месте работы, исследуя как превратить полимеры в особо прочные синтетические волокна. Кволек работала с полимерами, молекулы которых были стержнеобразной формы и выстраивались в одну линию.
По сравнению с молекулами, которые образуют перемешанные системы, Кволек полагала, что четкие линии, в которые выстраиваются молекулы, сделают задуманный ею материал, сильнее. Причем, это все актуально даже несмотря на то, что эти полимеры очень трудно растворяются в жидкости, которую затем можно протестировать. Позднее она смогла, наконец, создать такой раствор с палочковидными молекулами, но полученный ею раствор значительно отличался от всех других, ранее получаемых Стефанией.
Следующим шагом ее должно было быть пропускание жидкости через специальную машину, которая производит волокна ткани. Однако, оператор фильерной машины не позволил Кволек использовать аппарат, поскольку полученная ею смесь кардинально отличалась от того, что применялось ранее на нем, и он опасался, что машина может сломаться.
Все же Кволек настояла и после проведения процесса Кволек получила плотное, как сталь волокно. Этот материал получил название кевлара, и в настоящее время используется для производства лыж, радиальных шин, тормозных колодок, тросов для подвесных мостов, шлемов и т. д. В частности, кевлар используется для изготовления пуленепробиваемых жилетов, поэтому даже несмотря на то, что Кволек так и не пошла учиться в медицинскую школу, ей, тем не менее, удалось спасти много жизней.
TRANSLATION
If you make a list of the most famous inventions over the past few centuries, the authors of these inventions will be very few women. And it's not that women do not know how to invent, or they have no creative flair, but they face many obstacles in obtaining "credit" for their ideas.
Take, for example, the case of Sybil Masters (Sybilla Masters), a woman who lived in the American colonies. After observing the work of Indian women, she invented a new way to turning corn into cornmeal. Sybil went to England in order to obtain a patent for his idea, however, under existing laws when women were forbidden to have their property, including intellectual. Such property is usually owned by a woman or her father or her husband. In 1715 a patent for its invention yet been issued, but the document was the name of her husband.
Mary Keith (Mary Kies) was the first American woman filed a patent in his name. In 1809, she developed a method of weaving straw hats that were the economic boon to New England. Given a document in his name, Mary thus paved the way for other women to inventors to patent their ideas. Both women were quick to take advantage of this.1. Circular Saw
In the late 18th century came the Protestant religious sect known as Shakers. The main values of this sect were communal living, gender equality and hard work. Tabitha Babbitt (Tabitha Babbitt) lived in sheykerskom community in Massachusetts and worked as a weaver, but in 1810 she came up with a way to ease the load on the work of their brethren. She noticed that men are sawing logs special saw with two handles, which need to pull forward and back. While the burden on both men was the same, sawed logs only when the saw is moved forward and backward movement in a log, nothing happened. Babbitt thought it was a waste of energy, and created a prototype of a circular saw, which later was used in the sawmill industry. She came up with a saw with a circular blade, so every move made sense. However, because of the commandments of the community, Babbitt did not receive a patent for his invention.2. Chocolate chip cookies
There is no doubt that many culinary masterpieces are born by accident, but among them is to select one of the most enduring and delicious - chocolate chip cookies.
Ruth Wakefield (Ruth Wakefield) was a doctor, nutritionist and lecturer in food before she and her husband bought an old house-post at the outpost in the suburbs of Boston. Traditionally, such houses were a place where weary travelers pay tolls, snack and feed the horses. Ruth and her husband have turned this place into a hotel with a restaurant. One day in 1930, Ruth was baking cookies for the residents of the hotel, in which the prescription was necessary to add the melted chocolate, but the woman was in a hurry, so she took the usual chocolate Nestle, broke it into small pieces and added to the dough, considering that during the baking melted chocolate itself. Instead, the chocolate has acquired a special form and thus saw the birth of chocolate chip cookies.
Nestle company said that sales of its chocolate grown in Massachusetts. Company representatives met with Wakefield to talk about her cookies, which very quickly gained a reputation among tourists. At the suggestion of Ruth, they have added to its line of chocolate for more than a simple fracture, and then in 1939 began selling cookies factory production, while Ruth was a recipe printed on the reverse side of the package. In exchange, the woman received a life for free chocolate.3. Corrector
Bette Nesmith Graham (Bette Nesmith Graham) was not a good typist. However, high dropout rates of college students, which has touched and led the girl to the secretariat of the Bank of Texas, where she became executive secretary of the chairman of the bank. This was the beginning of the 1950s, electric typewriter had just been put into operation. But secretaries often had to retype the whole page of text because of one little mistake, as used at the time the carbon strip could not fix the error.
Graham once observed, the workers struck for a holiday picture window of the bank. She noticed that they were wrong, they are just another layer of paint on top to "close" error. Seeing this, she decided that she will be able to apply this idea in their work. Using a blender, she mixed the paint with water-based dye that was used in her typewriter. The mixture she had taken with him to work, and she was able to seamlessly with the fine watercolor brush to correct any errors in the printed document it. Soon, other secretaries began to demand the product, which is produced by Graham's own kitchen. Graham was fired from his job for waste much time on the distribution of their goods, which she called "no fault". However, being unemployed, she was able to improve its product, renaming it in the "liquid paper" and get it patented in 1958. Although typewriters have been replaced by computers, many people still use white liquid - a proofreader.4. Compiler and programming language COBOL
Speaking of computer technology, we tend to call them names, like Charles Babbage (Charles Babbage), Alan Turing (Alan Turing) and Bill Gates. However, Admiral Grace Murray Hopper (Grace Murray Hopper) deserves credit for her role in computer industry. Admiral Hopper began to serve in 1943, while she was at Harvard University, where he worked on the creation of a computer IBM Harvard Mark I, which was the first large-scale computer in the United States. She was the third person in the project, while Grace has written guidance on operations, which was used by her followers. In 1950, Admiral invented the compiler, which transformed the British team into machine code. This meant that programmers can now write code more easily and with fewer errors.
The second compiler Hopper, Flow-Matic, was used for programs UNIVAC I and II, who supported first appeared in the sale of computers. Admiral Hopper also oversaw the development of a common business oriented language COBOL, which was one of the first computer programming language. Admiral Hopper received numerous awards for her work, in addition, it was named after an American warship.5. Colored flares
When Martha Coston (Martha Coston) was widowed in 1847, she was only 21 years. In her arms had four children, and she had not the slightest idea of what to do next and what to feed them. One evening she leafing through a notebook her deceased husband, and found there a plan to create a flare system that could be used by ships to communicate with each other at night. Coston requested the relevant bodies about how to check the system to work, but it is not possible, but Coston was irresistible.
The next 10 years she spent in the fact that the process of upgrading the system and design crafted by her husband devices. She consulted with scientists and officers, but still could not figure out how to make flash were bright and durable, while were simple to use. One night she brought her children into the street to look at those fireworks, then something in her head and had an idea about how to apply some fireworks of its technology in the flare system.
Flare system finally worked, and the U.S. Navy bought the rights to it. Colored flares Coston widely used during the Civil War. But, unfortunately, the flare system was not the best way for women to feed their children. According to military documents, Coston made for the Navy during the Civil War, about 1200000 missiles, which it had provided them at cost. She had to pay 120 000 dollars, of which she had received only 15,000, and, as she wrote in her autobiography, the Navy refused to pay her the full amount due to the fact that she was a woman.6. Paper bag
Margaret Knight (Margaret Knight) did not invent paper bag, but the first paper bags were not so useful for carrying things. They were more like the envelopes, so there was no possibility of their use for food, that is something we know them now, they are not immediately apparent. For this we should thank the Knight. It is understood that such packages should be a big area of the bottom, then the weight evenly distributed to, and could accommodate such a package would have more things.
In 1870, she created a wooden apparatus which was cut out and glued the square base of paper bags. While Knight was working on a prototype unit of the iron, only to patent his invention, she found that her idea of stealing a man named Charles Annan (Charles Annan), who saw her wood invention a few months earlier. She filed a lawsuit against Annan, who argued that it is impossible for a woman was able to invent such a complex in the car. Knight picked up all his sketches, drawings and notes, in the end she was able to prove the contrary and obtain a patent for the device in 1871.
However, it was the first patent, which got her so hard, but not the first patent in her life. At age 12, she developed automatically stops the industrial machinery unit, if something went wrong, which helps prevent many injuries. Knight has received more than 20 patents.7. Dishwasher
We can assume that the dishwasher invented the man who has spent years standing over the sink and washing out the mountain of dishes, lamenting the wasted time wasted. In fact, Josephine Cochrane (Josephine Cochrane), who received a patent on the first working the dishwasher, do not spend so much time washing dishes. Real incentive for its invention is the fact that one day after a beautiful lunch of its employees while cleaning the kitchen broke wonderful Chinese porcelain set that was very dear to her.
Cochrane was a secular figure, which she loved having fun, but after her husband died in 1883, she was left with a huge amount of debt. Rather than sell its numerous relics, she focused on creating a machine that could wash them well, without harming them. Her car, based on the work which was aimed at vessels under intense pressure stream of water, allowed her to obtain a patent for the device in 1886. The woman claimed to invent the car was much easier than move it to the masses. First, it failed invention of individual consumers, because many families had no hot water systems, which are necessary for operation of the machine, and those who were not willing to pay for what women have done for free.
Undaunted by this failure, and she began to seek meetings with the directors of the major hotels and restaurants, telling them that the dishwasher can do the job for which they paid dozens of workers. Over time, however, more and more families began to acquire its own unit to private usage.8. Wipers
At the dawn of the 20th century, Mary Anderson (Mary Anderson) first visited New York. She saw that New York City, which is very different from what they see tourists today. Then, there were no endless traffic jams and unbelievable number of cars that are infinite and meaningless signals to each other in a vain attempt to drive faster. In those days cars still have not captured the imagination of the U.S. and were quite rare. However, a woman from Alabama, having gone then in New York, invented what became the standard for each vehicle. During his visit, Anderson was riding a tram through the snowy city.
She drew attention to the fact that the driver has to stop every few minutes to clean the windshield of snow. While all drivers are used to do, so when he went to rain or snow, it was a real attack, which had to deal. After returning home, Anderson has developed a special holder on the spindle, which was using the handle attached to the outside of the windshield. When the driver had to clean the glass, he just pulled the handle of the device and removes dirt from the windshield. Anderson received a patent for his device in 1903, but only 10 years later, thousands of Americans were traveling by car with its invention.9. Nystatin
Romantic relationships at a distance often questioned, however, Rachel Fuller Brown (Rachel Fuller Brown) and Elizabeth Lee Hazen (Elizabeth Lee Hazen) were able to prove that the professional relationship at a distance can lead to productive results. Both women worked at the New York State Department of Health in 1940, but Hazen was in New York, and Brown was in Albany. Despite the miles separating them, they cooperated in establishing the first successful drug-fighting fungus.
In New York City experienced a Hazen soil samples in order to check whether the interfaces of any of the organisms and fungi. If she managed to find some activity in the soil, it should send the specimen to my colleague, whose task was to extract from the soil organism that caused the reaction. As soon as Brown would have found the active ingredient, she should send the sample back to Hazen, so that she checked it again in the presence of fungi. If the body is able to kill fungi, it should be evaluated for toxicity. Most samples were too toxic for humans, but, finally, Brown and Hazen ran into an effective body that kills fungi and safe for humans. It happened in 1950.
They called his drug nystatin. Currently the drug is sold under various trade names, and he treats fungal infections that affect skin, genitals and intestines.10. Kevlar
It was supposed to be just a temporary job. Stephanie Kwolek (Stephanie Kwolek) began working in the DuPont company in 1946 in order to accumulate enough money to study at the Medical College. In 1964, she was still in the same place of work, exploring how to make the polymers in heavy-duty synthetic fibers. Kwolek has worked with polymers whose molecules are rod-shaped and lined up in one line.
Compared with the molecules that form the mixed systems, Kwolek believed that the sharp lines, which line up molecules that do conceived her material is stronger. Moreover, it is all true even though these polymers are very difficult to dissolve in a liquid, which can then be tested. Later she was able to finally create a solution with rod-shaped molecules, but the resulting solution was it significantly different from all other previously received Stephanie.
The next step it had to be transmission fluid through a special machine that produces the fabric. However, the operator of spunbond machines are not allowed to use the device Kwolek, because it received a mixture of totally different from that used previously on it, and he feared that the machine can break down.
Kwolek still insisted and after the process Kwolek was as solid as steel fiber. This material called Kevlar, and is currently used for the production of skis, radial tires, brake pads, cables for suspension bridges, helmets, etc. In particular, Kevlar is used to make bulletproof vests, so even despite the fact that Kwolek never went to study at medical school, she, nevertheless, managed to save many lives.
Take, for example, the case of Sybil Masters (Sybilla Masters), a woman who lived in the American colonies. After observing the work of Indian women, she invented a new way to turning corn into cornmeal. Sybil went to England in order to obtain a patent for his idea, however, under existing laws when women were forbidden to have their property, including intellectual. Such property is usually owned by a woman or her father or her husband. In 1715 a patent for its invention yet been issued, but the document was the name of her husband.
Mary Keith (Mary Kies) was the first American woman filed a patent in his name. In 1809, she developed a method of weaving straw hats that were the economic boon to New England. Given a document in his name, Mary thus paved the way for other women to inventors to patent their ideas. Both women were quick to take advantage of this.1. Circular Saw
In the late 18th century came the Protestant religious sect known as Shakers. The main values of this sect were communal living, gender equality and hard work. Tabitha Babbitt (Tabitha Babbitt) lived in sheykerskom community in Massachusetts and worked as a weaver, but in 1810 she came up with a way to ease the load on the work of their brethren. She noticed that men are sawing logs special saw with two handles, which need to pull forward and back. While the burden on both men was the same, sawed logs only when the saw is moved forward and backward movement in a log, nothing happened. Babbitt thought it was a waste of energy, and created a prototype of a circular saw, which later was used in the sawmill industry. She came up with a saw with a circular blade, so every move made sense. However, because of the commandments of the community, Babbitt did not receive a patent for his invention.2. Chocolate chip cookies
There is no doubt that many culinary masterpieces are born by accident, but among them is to select one of the most enduring and delicious - chocolate chip cookies.
Ruth Wakefield (Ruth Wakefield) was a doctor, nutritionist and lecturer in food before she and her husband bought an old house-post at the outpost in the suburbs of Boston. Traditionally, such houses were a place where weary travelers pay tolls, snack and feed the horses. Ruth and her husband have turned this place into a hotel with a restaurant. One day in 1930, Ruth was baking cookies for the residents of the hotel, in which the prescription was necessary to add the melted chocolate, but the woman was in a hurry, so she took the usual chocolate Nestle, broke it into small pieces and added to the dough, considering that during the baking melted chocolate itself. Instead, the chocolate has acquired a special form and thus saw the birth of chocolate chip cookies.
Nestle company said that sales of its chocolate grown in Massachusetts. Company representatives met with Wakefield to talk about her cookies, which very quickly gained a reputation among tourists. At the suggestion of Ruth, they have added to its line of chocolate for more than a simple fracture, and then in 1939 began selling cookies factory production, while Ruth was a recipe printed on the reverse side of the package. In exchange, the woman received a life for free chocolate.3. Corrector
Bette Nesmith Graham (Bette Nesmith Graham) was not a good typist. However, high dropout rates of college students, which has touched and led the girl to the secretariat of the Bank of Texas, where she became executive secretary of the chairman of the bank. This was the beginning of the 1950s, electric typewriter had just been put into operation. But secretaries often had to retype the whole page of text because of one little mistake, as used at the time the carbon strip could not fix the error.
Graham once observed, the workers struck for a holiday picture window of the bank. She noticed that they were wrong, they are just another layer of paint on top to "close" error. Seeing this, she decided that she will be able to apply this idea in their work. Using a blender, she mixed the paint with water-based dye that was used in her typewriter. The mixture she had taken with him to work, and she was able to seamlessly with the fine watercolor brush to correct any errors in the printed document it. Soon, other secretaries began to demand the product, which is produced by Graham's own kitchen. Graham was fired from his job for waste much time on the distribution of their goods, which she called "no fault". However, being unemployed, she was able to improve its product, renaming it in the "liquid paper" and get it patented in 1958. Although typewriters have been replaced by computers, many people still use white liquid - a proofreader.4. Compiler and programming language COBOL
Speaking of computer technology, we tend to call them names, like Charles Babbage (Charles Babbage), Alan Turing (Alan Turing) and Bill Gates. However, Admiral Grace Murray Hopper (Grace Murray Hopper) deserves credit for her role in computer industry. Admiral Hopper began to serve in 1943, while she was at Harvard University, where he worked on the creation of a computer IBM Harvard Mark I, which was the first large-scale computer in the United States. She was the third person in the project, while Grace has written guidance on operations, which was used by her followers. In 1950, Admiral invented the compiler, which transformed the British team into machine code. This meant that programmers can now write code more easily and with fewer errors.
The second compiler Hopper, Flow-Matic, was used for programs UNIVAC I and II, who supported first appeared in the sale of computers. Admiral Hopper also oversaw the development of a common business oriented language COBOL, which was one of the first computer programming language. Admiral Hopper received numerous awards for her work, in addition, it was named after an American warship.5. Colored flares
When Martha Coston (Martha Coston) was widowed in 1847, she was only 21 years. In her arms had four children, and she had not the slightest idea of what to do next and what to feed them. One evening she leafing through a notebook her deceased husband, and found there a plan to create a flare system that could be used by ships to communicate with each other at night. Coston requested the relevant bodies about how to check the system to work, but it is not possible, but Coston was irresistible.
The next 10 years she spent in the fact that the process of upgrading the system and design crafted by her husband devices. She consulted with scientists and officers, but still could not figure out how to make flash were bright and durable, while were simple to use. One night she brought her children into the street to look at those fireworks, then something in her head and had an idea about how to apply some fireworks of its technology in the flare system.
Flare system finally worked, and the U.S. Navy bought the rights to it. Colored flares Coston widely used during the Civil War. But, unfortunately, the flare system was not the best way for women to feed their children. According to military documents, Coston made for the Navy during the Civil War, about 1200000 missiles, which it had provided them at cost. She had to pay 120 000 dollars, of which she had received only 15,000, and, as she wrote in her autobiography, the Navy refused to pay her the full amount due to the fact that she was a woman.6. Paper bag
Margaret Knight (Margaret Knight) did not invent paper bag, but the first paper bags were not so useful for carrying things. They were more like the envelopes, so there was no possibility of their use for food, that is something we know them now, they are not immediately apparent. For this we should thank the Knight. It is understood that such packages should be a big area of the bottom, then the weight evenly distributed to, and could accommodate such a package would have more things.
In 1870, she created a wooden apparatus which was cut out and glued the square base of paper bags. While Knight was working on a prototype unit of the iron, only to patent his invention, she found that her idea of stealing a man named Charles Annan (Charles Annan), who saw her wood invention a few months earlier. She filed a lawsuit against Annan, who argued that it is impossible for a woman was able to invent such a complex in the car. Knight picked up all his sketches, drawings and notes, in the end she was able to prove the contrary and obtain a patent for the device in 1871.
However, it was the first patent, which got her so hard, but not the first patent in her life. At age 12, she developed automatically stops the industrial machinery unit, if something went wrong, which helps prevent many injuries. Knight has received more than 20 patents.7. Dishwasher
We can assume that the dishwasher invented the man who has spent years standing over the sink and washing out the mountain of dishes, lamenting the wasted time wasted. In fact, Josephine Cochrane (Josephine Cochrane), who received a patent on the first working the dishwasher, do not spend so much time washing dishes. Real incentive for its invention is the fact that one day after a beautiful lunch of its employees while cleaning the kitchen broke wonderful Chinese porcelain set that was very dear to her.
Cochrane was a secular figure, which she loved having fun, but after her husband died in 1883, she was left with a huge amount of debt. Rather than sell its numerous relics, she focused on creating a machine that could wash them well, without harming them. Her car, based on the work which was aimed at vessels under intense pressure stream of water, allowed her to obtain a patent for the device in 1886. The woman claimed to invent the car was much easier than move it to the masses. First, it failed invention of individual consumers, because many families had no hot water systems, which are necessary for operation of the machine, and those who were not willing to pay for what women have done for free.
Undaunted by this failure, and she began to seek meetings with the directors of the major hotels and restaurants, telling them that the dishwasher can do the job for which they paid dozens of workers. Over time, however, more and more families began to acquire its own unit to private usage.8. Wipers
At the dawn of the 20th century, Mary Anderson (Mary Anderson) first visited New York. She saw that New York City, which is very different from what they see tourists today. Then, there were no endless traffic jams and unbelievable number of cars that are infinite and meaningless signals to each other in a vain attempt to drive faster. In those days cars still have not captured the imagination of the U.S. and were quite rare. However, a woman from Alabama, having gone then in New York, invented what became the standard for each vehicle. During his visit, Anderson was riding a tram through the snowy city.
She drew attention to the fact that the driver has to stop every few minutes to clean the windshield of snow. While all drivers are used to do, so when he went to rain or snow, it was a real attack, which had to deal. After returning home, Anderson has developed a special holder on the spindle, which was using the handle attached to the outside of the windshield. When the driver had to clean the glass, he just pulled the handle of the device and removes dirt from the windshield. Anderson received a patent for his device in 1903, but only 10 years later, thousands of Americans were traveling by car with its invention.9. Nystatin
Romantic relationships at a distance often questioned, however, Rachel Fuller Brown (Rachel Fuller Brown) and Elizabeth Lee Hazen (Elizabeth Lee Hazen) were able to prove that the professional relationship at a distance can lead to productive results. Both women worked at the New York State Department of Health in 1940, but Hazen was in New York, and Brown was in Albany. Despite the miles separating them, they cooperated in establishing the first successful drug-fighting fungus.
In New York City experienced a Hazen soil samples in order to check whether the interfaces of any of the organisms and fungi. If she managed to find some activity in the soil, it should send the specimen to my colleague, whose task was to extract from the soil organism that caused the reaction. As soon as Brown would have found the active ingredient, she should send the sample back to Hazen, so that she checked it again in the presence of fungi. If the body is able to kill fungi, it should be evaluated for toxicity. Most samples were too toxic for humans, but, finally, Brown and Hazen ran into an effective body that kills fungi and safe for humans. It happened in 1950.
They called his drug nystatin. Currently the drug is sold under various trade names, and he treats fungal infections that affect skin, genitals and intestines.10. Kevlar
It was supposed to be just a temporary job. Stephanie Kwolek (Stephanie Kwolek) began working in the DuPont company in 1946 in order to accumulate enough money to study at the Medical College. In 1964, she was still in the same place of work, exploring how to make the polymers in heavy-duty synthetic fibers. Kwolek has worked with polymers whose molecules are rod-shaped and lined up in one line.
Compared with the molecules that form the mixed systems, Kwolek believed that the sharp lines, which line up molecules that do conceived her material is stronger. Moreover, it is all true even though these polymers are very difficult to dissolve in a liquid, which can then be tested. Later she was able to finally create a solution with rod-shaped molecules, but the resulting solution was it significantly different from all other previously received Stephanie.
The next step it had to be transmission fluid through a special machine that produces the fabric. However, the operator of spunbond machines are not allowed to use the device Kwolek, because it received a mixture of totally different from that used previously on it, and he feared that the machine can break down.
Kwolek still insisted and after the process Kwolek was as solid as steel fiber. This material called Kevlar, and is currently used for the production of skis, radial tires, brake pads, cables for suspension bridges, helmets, etc. In particular, Kevlar is used to make bulletproof vests, so even despite the fact that Kwolek never went to study at medical school, she, nevertheless, managed to save many lives.
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